Kierkegaards View On Faith And Knowledge

Kierkegaards View On Faith And Knowledge Kierkegaard, the father of existentialism, is often seen as a philosophical iconoclast, who rejects excessive formalism and instead believes in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual; autonomy for him is the best guide to what people should do ethically and ethics could in its turn enable the individual to approach knowledge through faith. This philosopher was thus often concerned with the nature of truth and knowledge especially in regard to articles of faith. It is commonly known that biblical Christianity is founded on the truths of Gods word. Kierkegaards claim that knowledge or truth can be achieved through subjectivity is therefore at first glance incomprehensibly elusive. However, it should be taken into account that Kierkegaard is basing his ideas on a criticism of Hegels approach to the nature of absolute knowledge. Hegel claimed namely that human beings could possess absolute knowledge and certainty through a careful and rational analysis of human existence. John Cli macus, a 7th century monk, argued in his turn against this idea by noting that an acceptance of this approach would imply that knowing is more important for Christians than believing; two acts that are very different at the core because of the qualitative difference between knowledge and faith. (Garrett) Kierkegaards major emphasis in this regard is that Christian life is founded on more than a simple belief in an orthodox doctrine. For this reason, when Kierkegaard underlines the need for subjectivity to reach knowledge he is merely claiming that all human beings must appropriate the truth of whatever they believe if it is truly to take hold of their lives. (Garrett). In short, Kierkegaard argues thus that a rational life is indeed a moral life, and a moral life is a religious life. Morality and ethics consequently inevitably lead to religion. Under such a supposition, the ethical individual would surmise his task as becoming less the individual or particular and more the universal (JSTOR 161). The goal becomes the unification of the particular and the universal. Under such a unity, truth is revealed as truth is in what is ethical, and what is ethical is determined by reason. Contrasting Kierkegaards views with the Kantian approach to faith and knowledge enables also for a closer understanding of the philosophers ideas. To Kierkegaard is it not Kantian reason which leads to God but faith. One cannot make a rational decision towards that which has no facts, no proof, and no certainty. The ethical thrives on the certainty of truth through reason. The religious cannot have such a luxury. It is not rational decision-making, rather, it is faith. Kierkegaard refers to the transition from the ethical to the third stage as the Leap of Faith. The Leap of Faith is the third stage in Kierkegaards theory of overcoming the paradox which is an apparently true statement that however leads to a contradiction or a situation that goes against ones intuition. It can only be resolved when the contradiction is shown as apparent. Kierkegaards story of Abraham exhibits such a paradox. Abraham could not prove he heard a voice yet he believed and was willing to risk his son based on this belief. Through Abrahams story Kierkegaard shows that the paradox of faith rests on the idea that the believer acts on less than complete knowledge. Kierkegaard believed however that humans ought to have faith by the virtue of the absurd, which is because something is contradictory at nature. (Kierkegaard) The leap of faith, that is often associated with the emergence of existentialism, is therefore Kierkegaards response to a problem which is essentially Kantian in origin and structure. Kierkegaard wants to accommodate both the Kantian interpretation of morality as a rational command and Kants insistence on morality as the sole point of access to religion, while rejecting the Kantian moralization of religion and rationalization of faith. The leap of faith is not, as existentialism would have it, an absolute beginning in philosophy or in individual reflection but a transition from morality to religion within an essentially Kantian context. This point is not only of historical but also of systematic value. From the standpoint of Kantian philosophy its value lies in the attempt to establish a connection between morality and religion which preserves morality as a rational command but which also avoids the Kantian reduction of religion to morality and faith to reason. From the standpoint of Kierkegaards existentialists successors it advances the argument that morality understood as a rational command is that condition without which the subject can make no progress toward objective and universal truth, which leads to its avoidance of the separation of reason and choice and ends consequently in subjectivism. Kierkegaard sees faith as the abandonment of all else before it in order to wholly accept it. One cannot coldly and rationally choose to accept faith because it has the greatest utility or merit. This would still be the ethical stage in religious clothing. The third stage, according to Kierkegaard, needs passion to survive; it needs the unknown, and the Leap of Faith. If the particular is not faithfully accepted but is rather critically scrutinized, then the religious stage will inevitably suffer the same fate of a moral dilemma that deprives the ethical stage from eternal happiness. According to Kierkegaard, the religious stage is spared only by the ethical paradox through faith. . It is interesting to note that while philosophers as Kant believe that morality and religion are one so the jump is seamless, Kierkegaard believes the step requires an evolution of thought because one cannot move from a set of moral premises to a religious conclusion if morality, which is expressed concep tually, is understood as commands based on reason while religion, which is expressed paradoxically, is understood as promise based on faith (JSTOR 164). Kierkegaards views regarding the nature of rational knowledge attainment through faith rests thus on several principles as has been illustrated. The Leap of faith has been discussed. Another aspect to his ideas is the ethical individual as part of this complicated process. The ethical individual must be like a judge, closely and impartially evaluating all information and evidence presented before making an educated decision. The imagery of the judge represents the epitome of rationalist ideology. He is a character which tries to equate ethics with rational decisions. The judge seeks to distance his self from social relations and personal desires so that he is like a force of nature. With such impartiality, he hopes that he can logically deduce the correct decision to any situation like an artificial intelligence. The judge attempts to watch the scales of relative merit and announce ones choice only after observing a clear tip in one direction. It is, the Judge might say, a foolproof method for determining which choice will produce the most appropriate action (Friedman 160). Through such certainty, an ethicist could be said to demystify the world. One who can act without doubt and knows exactly what decision to make. If a person was truly capable of such power, they could be said to be making their self into that of the divine, with omniscient knowledge In conclusion, whereas as other theorists who argue against secular enlightenment, such as Immanuel Kant, would say that the individual has a logical inescapable path to religion based on factual reasoning, Kierkegaard disagrees. Kierkegaard soundly rejects such assumptions when he declares: I do not believe that Kant himself, or any of his successors, have managed to show that any serious moral constraint can be derived from simply considering the conditions of rational agency. Nor do I think that this can be done. What follows rests on the premise that the Kantian project is a failure (Rudd 13). According to Kierkegaard, is it not rational thought or morality which leads to God, but rather faith alone. The ethical depends on certainty of truth through reason, but the religious cannot have such a luxury. They depend on the very suspension of reason and certainty of knowledge; they depend on faith. This transition from the ethical to the religious is what Kierkegaard refers to as the Leap of Faith. The Leap requires one to accept that their capabilities alone are insufficient, and that only by placing their faith in God can they hope to achieve true knowledge.

Porcupines :: essays research papers

Porcupines African Crested Porcupines Order: rodent. A porcupine's habitat and range: forests, deserts, and grasslands of North and South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. Porcupines can weigh from 2 to 60 pounds depending on the species. A prickly coat of needle-sharp quills is the porcupine's best defense. Ordinarily the quills lay flat. But if an enemy approaches the porcupine will raise the quills and spread them, usually deterring the enemy. If the animal is not deterred the quills may lodge in the enemy's flesh when the porcupine brushes against the animal. New quills grow in to relace the lost ones. The porcupine cannot throw its quills. There are two groups of porcupines. They differ in habits and appearance. The porcupines of the Americas also climb trees. Some have been seen using their tails to hold on to branches. In the winter the North American porcupine eats evergreen needles and bark. When spring arrives they feed on leaves, buds, stems, and fruit. Depending on the species, the gestation period is from 2 to 7 months, bearing 1 to 4 young. The life span of captive porcupines can be as much as 20 years. The Future of the Porcupine They are nearsighted, have a deep red shine to their eyes, and four toes on each front foot and five toes on each hind foot. Porkies are the second-largest rodent in Wisconsin after the North American beaver. They can weigh 30 pounds or more in summer but their weight drops dramatically during the lean months of winter. Porcupines live in the northern two-thirds of the state in a territory that extends in a V-shape from about the Ellsworth area in Pierce County down to Wisconsin Dells and back up toward Green Bay. Porcupines, like most rodents, are vegetarians. Their winter diet consists of conifer needles, buds and the bark of pines, hemlock, maples and birch. How these critters survive on foods with a protein content of only two to three percent is truly amazing. Porcupines are sloppy eaters who drop a lot of greener y that provides a welcome snack for white-tailed deer during deep snows. If you spot a small pile of freshly-snipped branches on a winter walk, it's likely porcupines are nearby. Their winter dens are easy to find -- just follow your eyes and nose. Porcupines winter in caves and hollow logs. They travel the same paths every day.

Parole and Truth in Sentencing Paper

Parole and Truth-in-Sentencing Paper xxxxx xxxxxxx CJS/200 November 19, 2011 xxxxxx Parole and Truth-in-Sentencing Paper Before parole becomes an option to an offender or an offender remains on parole, there are conditions and concepts and goals that must be practiced or met. Typical conditions influence parole as the inmate is released from prison. Truth-in-sentencing laws have goals in relations to parole. To understand the concepts on which parole is based, one must know and understand the definition of parole. Parole, the early release of an inmate from correctional confinement under supervision, is a sentencing strategy that returns offenders progressively to productive lives (Schmalleger, 2011). According to Schmalleger (2011), â€Å"By making early release possible, parole can also act as a stimulus for positive behavioral change. † Parole is based off and supports the concept of imprecise sentencing, which held that an inmate can gain early discharge through good conduct and self-improvement (Schmalleger, 2011). The conditions of parole place general and special limitations on offenders who have been released from prison early (Schmalleger, 2011). The offender’s criminal background as well as the circumstances of the offense is taken into consideration when referring to special conditions, while general conditions are fixed by state statutes (Schmalleger, 2011). Under the conditions of parole, a parolee must periodically check in, or report, to parole officers, and parole officers may visit the parolees home or place of employment unannounced (Schmalleger, 2011). While an offender is on parole, he or she must obtain employment within 30 days and continue work as it has shown to reduce the probability of repeated offenses (Schmalleger, 2011). In accordance to Schmalleger (2011), â€Å"General conditions of parole usually include agreement not to leave the state as well to obey extradition requests from other jurisdiction. † Truth in sentencing, a close connection linking the sentence imposed on an offender, and the amount of time served in prison, benefited offenders while infuriated victims (Schmalleger, 2011). What you get is what you serve† became the emphasis on truth in sentencing and has become an important policy focus of many state legislatures and the United States Congress (Schmalleger, 2011). The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement set aside funds that adopt the truth-in-sentencing laws assure that certain violent offenders will serve at least 85 percent of their prison sentence (Schmalleger, 2011). The concept of parole allows an offender to be released from confinement before the end of their sentence under certain circumstances. Conditions must be followed and maintained to ensure the offender stays on parole. The goals of truth in sentencing are based on violent criminals completing 85 percent of their time to honor the victim. References Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the twenty-first century (11th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Africana Philosophy Short Essays essays

Africana Philosophy Short Essays essays 1. Discuss the different contradictory tenets of Western Cartesian philosophical thought and Africana thought. (Pay special attention to Henrys treatment of Cartesian philosophical thought.) A principle contradictory tenet between Western Cartesian and Africana philosophies is autonomy. Western thought is not inclusive of religion or mythology; Western thought is autonomous. The practice itself began as a revolt against mythology. Written discourse of a certain formulation can be considered Western philosophy as only then can it be argued and interpreted with respect to validity. Western thought dismissed the interdisciplinary ideas that are not only included in but helped form the Africana metaphilosophy. Western Cartesian thought includes the metaphilosophy of Western thought but goes one step further; Descartes metaphilosophy also incorporated an individuals personal thoughts (although not tangible) and personal identity. In a different philosophic sense, Africana thought (as argued by Paget Henry) is not only inclusive of philosophy but also of religion and other disciplines. As practices, mythology and religion are precursors to the relatively new discipline of philosophy. Henry, among others, dispute the ways in which Western thought neglects the importance of intertextual and interdisciplinary discourse. Africana philosophy is open to and includes folklore, mythology, narratives, etc. Primarily, for Henry, Africana thought is diverse. Henry even goes as far as to claim that Western Cartesian thought is too narrow because it is not intertextual nor is it accepting of expanding cultures. Validity in (textual) discourse is not as important as who makes a claim. These unwritten customs and traditions, according to Africana philosophy and in direct contradiction with Western Cartesian philosophy, are an important collection of ideas that make up the metaphilosophy. 2. Compare and contrast Garv...

Double Genitive Definition and Examples in English grammar

Double Genitive Definition and Examples in English grammar In English grammar, the double genitive is a phrase in which possession is indicated by the preposition of followed by the possessive form of a noun or pronoun, as in a friend of Erics. Also called a  double possessive, an oblique genitive, and a postgenitive.  Some linguists argue that the double genitive is not a true genitive but rather a type of partitive construction. In The Careful Writer (1965), Theodore Bernstein noted that Grammarians have argued over the origin and nature, but not the validity, of the double genitive with the fervor of hot-stove league fans rehashing a Word Series play. Examples and Observations The Dude: Who are you, man?Knox Harrington: Oh, just a friend of Maudies.(The Big Lebowski, 1998)We heard the news from a neighbor of Alices.My bedroom, like that of my potential roommates, is cell-like in both its size and simplicity, furnished with only a bed and a small chest of drawers that easily accommodates the little I brought with me.(David Sedaris, Naked, 1997) Bernsteins Defense of the Double Genitive Not infrequently someone questions a construction that reads like this: He is a political associate of the Presidents. Since the of indicates the possessive (genitive), the someone argues, why tack on another possessive in the form of s? Grammarians differ as to the origin and explanation of the construction, but they do not question its well-established legitimacy. . .  [T]he double genitive is of long standing, idiomatic, useful and here to stay.(Theodore Bernstein, Miss Thistlebottoms Hobgoblins. Farrar, 1971) An Idiomatic Construction Despite their apparent redundancy, double genitive constructions such as a friend of ours or no fault of Jos are established English idiom. Grammarians since C18 have puzzled over the way the construction iterates the of genitive with a genitive inflection on the following pronoun or personal noun.(Pam Peters, The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge University Press, 2004) A Subtle Difference To say youre a friend of Gregs means that Greg looks upon you as a friend. To say youre a friend of Greg means that you look upon Greg as a friend. A subtle difference. It seems that the addition of -s to . . . Greg is a way of focusing attention on [this person] as having a more active role in the relationship being expressed. Double possession has given us a way to express quite fine distinctions that we couldnt convey before. The extra marking is not overkill in this case.​(Kate Burridge, Weeds in the Garden of Words: Further Observations on the Tangled History of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2005) Purists and Language Liberals A good many of us do use some double genitives and do not notice that they are double. Some language liberals argue that in informal and casual contexts the double genitive is idiomatic and not overkill, but few editors of Standard English will be likely to let it stand in formal writing. Its either friends of my sister or my sisters friends; even in conversation, friends of my sisters may grate harshly on some purists ears.(Kenneth Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English, 1993)The double possessive is a matter of some controversy. Some insist that constructions like a friend of Bills are redundant and therefore should be avoided. Others see an old pal of mine and extrapolate that, because youd never say an old pal of me, you also must reject a friend of Bill.I say trust your ear over either dogma. A friend of Bills probably is better . . ..(Bill Walsh, Yes, I Could Care Less: How to Be a Language Snob Without Being a Jerk. St. Martins Press, 2013)

Information of JADE from Neolithic period to Han dynasty Research Paper - 1

Information of JADE from Neolithic period to Han dynasty - Research Paper Example Previously, history has not recorded the use of metals by humans in any concrete sense. Therefore, China can be seen as a pioneer that ushered in the transformation in this era around 7000 BC though this process of change dates back to a much earlier phase in time. As there is no written evidence, much is not known about who these people were, what language they spoke, and what social norms they followed. However, evidence throughout the history shows that jade remained a major influence in Chinese culture and civilization in the Neolithic period, transcending to the Han Dynasty and beyond. Evidence unearthed from many sites in the form of houses, burials, pottery, and tools suggests the distinction of different cultures through various artifacts. While the earlier settlements flourished all over mainland China, in the north the provinces of Henan, Hebai and eastern and southern Shaanxi thrived with the Peligang and Cishan Cultures. In the central and western province, along the Yellow river and its tributary the Wei, Yangzi and its tributaries, the Yangshao culture (c.4800-4300BC) with its distinguished painted potteries, and later the Majiayao culture (c.2500-2200BC) inhabited. In the east at Hemudu (c.5000BC) near Hangzhou and adjoining regions, an amalgam of different cultures came into prominence. In these cultures, especially in the eastern ones where specialization was intensive, the devotion to jade work and fine ceramics were cultivated with an affinity towards various rituals and ceremonies. Thus, jade was extensively used in creating different versions of weapons, tools that came hardy on everyday life. Besides, decorative items and ceramics were elaborately used in the formation of high pierced stands and lobed bodies of aesthetic and artistic value. When dwelling on the culture of jade in the Chinese history, a mentioning of the Hongshan societies in the

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 70

History - Essay Example While he is a Muslim, he has to adjust to an expanse primarily dominated by Christianity. Ibrahima faces an identity and dignity challenge after his migration to another continent. Religiously, Ibrahima is an ardent Muslim. As an enslaved person, he is barred from reading or practicing his faith in any way. Most of the slaves were Muslims. Even so, this did not persuade the masters to let their slaves observe their religious convictions (Alford, 1977). As a result, they had to resign to a life of disgrace and far-reaching degradation. In spite of the challenges he endured, Ibrahima rose above the appalling subjugation. Naturally, during times of distress, people maintain their religious inclinations to acquire deliverance. Despite the bad things that happen, Ibrahima upholds the Qadr (will of God) and stays staunchly upright. Ibrahima dignity is tried when he moves from one social order as a prince to a lower one as a slave. From a life of supremacy and honour, he became a slave in a strange place. As a prince, there are privileges he enjoyed. As a slave, he is virtually reduced to a vagrant who has to work for a master (Alford, 1977). Owing to this, his dignity is shattered. He desperately tries to convince his new master that he is of value in his homeland and that his father can trade his liberty for gold. This is ignored by the slave-owner who discounts it as nonsense. Although he is later recognized by an Irish surgeon, Ibrahima fails to secure his freedom. He never mislays his dignity and maintains hope of regaining his independence. Ibrahima’s quest to gain freedom faced diverse challenges. For instance, the American Colonization Society, which aided slaves in their pursuit for freedom, demanded that he transforms to Christianity to obtain help. Unexpectedly, the first thing he did when he touched foot in Liberia was to express gratitude to Allah for his emancipation. In addition, the repatriation